20 exam tips for students. By Muhammad Salih Al-Munajjid

Praise be to Allaah and peace and blessings be upon the Messenger and upon his family and companions.

The Muslim student puts his trust in Allaah when facing the tests of this world, and he seeks His help whilst following the prescribed means, in accordance with the words of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him): “The strong believer is better and is more beloved to Allaah than the weak believer, although both are good. Strive to attain that which will benefit you and seek the help of Allaah, and do not feel helpless.” (Saheeh Muslim, hadeeth no. 2664)

Among those means are the following:

• Turning to Allaah by making du’aa’ in any way that is prescribed in Islam, such as saying, “Rabbiy ishrah li sadri wa yassir li amri (O my Lord, expand my chest and make things easy for me).”
• Getting used to sleeping early and going to exams on time.
• Preparing all required or permitted equipment such as pens, rulers and setsquares, calculators and watches, because being well prepared helps one to answer questions.
• Reciting the du’aa’ for leaving the house: “Bismillaah, tawakkaltu ‘ala Allaah, wa laa hawla wa laa quwwata illa Billaah. Allaahumma inni a’oodhu bika an adilla aw udalla, aw azilla aw uzalla, aw azlima aw uzlama, aw ajhala aw yujhala ‘alayya (In the name of Allaah, I put my trust in Allaah, and there is no strength and no power except with Allaah. O Allaah, I seek refuge with You lest I should stray or be led astray, lest I slip (commit a sin unintentionally) or be tripped, lest I oppress or be oppressed, lest I behave foolishly or be treated foolishly).” Do not forget to seek your parents’ approval, for their du’aa’ for you will be answered.
• Mention the name of Allaah before you start, for mentioning the name of Allaah is prescribed when beginning any permissible action; this brings blessing, and seeking the help of Allaah is one of the means of strength.
• Fear Allaah with regard to your classmates, and do not be affected by their anxiety or fear just before the exam, for anxiety is a contagious disease. Instead, make them feel optimistic by saying good words as prescribed in Islam. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) was optimistic when he heard the name of Suhayl (which means “easy”) and he said: “Things have been made easy for you.” He used to like to hear the words ‘Yaa Raashid, when he went out for any purpose. So be optimistic that you and your brothers will pass this exam.
• Remembering Allaah (dhikr) dispels anxiety and tension. If something is too difficult for you, then pray to Allaah to make it easy for you. Whenever Shaykh al-Islam Ibn Taymiyah (may Allaah have mercy on him) found something too difficult to understand, he would say, “O You Who taught Ibraaheem, teach me; O You Who caused Sulaymaan to understand, cause me to understand.”
• Choose a good place to sit during the exam, if you can. Keep your back straight, and sit on the chair in a healthy manner.
• Look over the exam first. Studies advise spending 10% of the exam time in reading the questions carefully, noting the important words and dividing one’s time between the questions.
• Plan to answer the easy questions first, then the difficult ones. Whilst reading the questions, write notes and ideas which you can use in your answers later.
• Answer questions according to importance.
• Start by answering the easy questions which you know. Then move on to the questions which carry high marks, and leave till the end the questions to which you do not know the answers, or which you think will take a long time to produce an answer or which do not carry such high marks.
• Take your time to answer, for the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said:“Deliberation is from Allaah and haste is from the Shaytaan.” (A hasan hadeeth. Saheeh al-Jaami, 3011).
• Think carefully about the answer and choose the right answer when answering multiple-choice questions. Deal with them in the following manner. If you are sure that you have chosen the right answer, then beware of waswasah (insinuating whispers from the Shaytaan). If you are not sure, then start by eliminating the wrong or unlikely answers, then choose the correct answer based on what you think is most likely to be correct. If you guessed at a correct answer then do not change it unless you are sure that it is wrong – especially if you will lose marks for a wrong answer. Research indicates that the correct answer is usually that which the student thinks of first.
• In written exams, collect your thoughts before you start to answer. Write an outline for your answer with some words which will indicate the ideas which you want to discuss. Then number the ideas in the sequence in which you want to present them.
• Write the main points of your answer at the beginning of the line, because this is what the examiner is looking for, and he may not see what he is looking for if it is in the middle of the page and he is in a hurry.
• Devote 10% of the time for reviewing your answers. Take your time in reviewing, especially in mathematical problems and writing numbers. Resist the desire to hand in the exam papers quickly, and do not let the fact that some people are leaving early bother you. They may be among the people who have handed in their papers too early.
• If you discover after the exam that you answered some questions incorrectly, then take that as a lesson in the importance of being well prepared in the future, and not rushing to answer questions. Accept the will and decree of Allaah and do not fall prey to frustration and despair. Remember the hadeeth of the Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him), “If anything befalls you, do not say, ‘If only I had done such and such.’ Rather say, ‘Qadar Allaah wa maa sha’a kaan (the decree of Allaah and what He wills happened),’ for saying ‘if only’ opens the door for the Shaytaan.” (Saheeh Muslim, and the first part of this hadeeth was mentioned above).
• Note that cheating is haraam whether it is in foreign language tests or any other tests. The Prophet (peace and blessings of Allaah be upon him) said, “Whoever cheats is not one of us.” It is wrongdoing and it is a haraam means of attaining a degree or certificate, etc., that you have no right to. The consensus is that cheating is a kind of cooperation in sin and transgression. So do without that which is haraam, and Allaah will suffice you from His bounty. Reject all offers of haraam things that come to you from others. Whoever gives up a thing for the sake of Allaah, Allaah will compensate him with something better. You have to denounce and resist evil, and tell the authorities about any such thing that you see during the exam, or before or after it. This is not the forbidden kind of slander rather it is denouncing evil which is obligatory.
  Advise those who buy or sell questions or post them on the Internet etc., or who prepare cheat notes. Tell them to fear Allaah, and tell them of the ruling on what they are doing and on the money they earn from that. Tell them that the time they are spending in preparing these haraam things, if they spent it in studying, or answering previous exams, or helping one another to understand the subject before the exam, that would be better for them than doing these haraam things.
• Remember what you have prepared for the Hereafter, and the questions of the examination in the grave, and how to be saved on the Day of Resurrection. Whoever is saved from the Fire and admitted to Paradise will indeed have succeeded.

We ask Allaah to make us succeed in this world and cause us to be among those who are victorious and saved in the Hereafter, for He is the All-Hearing Who answers prayer.Ameen.

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The Beauty of Flower

Some photos were taken at Magelang, Indonesia. Then the rest of them were taken at Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

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The Bloody Waters of Tiaka

The police are considered negligent in handling mass actions in the Medco-Pertamina oilfield. There was rights violation.

There wasn't much activity on the oil rig of Tiaka, Morowali, Central Sulawesi, on Saturday morning in the third week of August. In the oilfield owned by the joint operating body of PT Medco E&P Tomori Sulawesi and PT Pertamina (Persero) state oil company lay a large excavator right in front of an oil container in the form of a giant cylinder.

This oil well is linked with Kolo Bawah village by Tiaka island waters. The waters, also called Tomini Bay, are very clear. Fish and corals are clearly visible from boats. In the waters, Kolo Bawah villagers, mostly coming from the Bajo ethnic group of fishermen, used to fish for a living.

That morning, a number of technicians and several security guards in the oilfield performed their duties as usual. They didn't expect that from across the waters a boat carrying 30 villagers was approaching the island with one mission: questioning Medco's promise.

"Since 2007, the firm has promised us community empowerment," said Taslim, 28, one of the residents on the boat, to Tempo on Thursday last week.

Displaying a poster of the Youth and Student Alliance for North Bungku and Mamosalato People, the residents gave an oration at the entrance of the Tiaka field. They voiced their demand for the recruitment of local workers, the construction of infrastructure and the supply of funds for environmental development and education.

The protesters were greatly disappointed. Their hour-long sail was to no avail as none of the firm's executives showed up. Out of frustration, the residents returned home while damaging the security station, maltreating Amri and Wahab, both Medco employees, and taking away a speedboat.

The next morning a group of residents again met to prepare follow-up action. On Monday, August 22, at 11am Central Indonesia Time, around 100 people aboard six boats sailed back to Tiaka. As previously, the Monday action was led by field coordinator Andri Sondeng. "The coordinator asked us to ravage right away," said Taslim.

Reaching Tiaka, the protesters smashed glass, paper, helmets and cushions. "Whatever we found was shattered," added Taslim, now in detention at the Central Sulawesi Regional Police. Smoke billowed as the cushions burnt affected diesel oil in the oil mining area. With the high-rising smoke, the village residents panicked and rushed to the quay to sail away. Taslim also followed them. Along with them were three policemen, a soldier and two security men of Medco, aboard a 3-ton-capacity boat.

On their way, the six passengers wanted to move from the residents' boat. They shouted to attract the people on Medco's speedboat in front. As there was no response, a policeman on the residents' fired into the air to draw attention.

Unexpectedly, the skyward gunfire was countered by a shower of shots from the speedboat directed at another boat of the residents. Andri, the field coordinator, was on board. He was shot in the chest and was moved to yet another boat to be taken to Kolo Bawah village.

The engine of the boat Taslim boarded suddenly stopped due to a lack of fuel. The residents on board asked for fuel help from the village. Failing to get the fuel, the boat passengers asked the police sailing with them to call Tiaka in order to send fuel. "But on one condition: the fuel wasn't delivered by security forces," said Taslim.

After a while, a speedboat approached from Tiaka, bringing fuel. "It carried 12 Mobile Brigade members," noted Taslim. The six people who boarded the residents' boat moved to the speedboat. As they were leaving, one of the policemen previously joining the residents pointed at Yurifin on Taslim's boat. "They asked for their arms back," said Taslim, who had been selling ice for fish preservation.

After the shots at the boat that hit Andri, Yurifin a Gorontalo State University student asked the policemen, soldier and Medco security men to give up their arms. "We were worried in case they might shoot. So we seized their weapons," indicated Taslim. Two M-16s and a revolver were held by Yurifin and Zainudin, sharing the same boat with Taslim.

Asked to return the guns, Yurifin shouted at the police on the speedboat, only 5 meters from their boat. "Yurifin told them to collect the arms later at the [Mamosalato] sector police office," said Taslim.

But the police on the speedboat responded by ordering the residents on their boat to raise their hands and drop their arms. "Then, we were immediately shot with a spray of gunfire. It sounded like rain," revealed Taslim.

All on the boat promptly lay prone. It was 4:30pm Central Indonesia Time. "The sky was a bit cloudy that afternoon," recalled Taslim. But seven people were hit. Marten Datu Adam died on the spot. Yurifin died on his way to Luwuk Hospital. "Yurifin was on my lap. Before he died, he smiled twice," he related. Taslim and four peers were badly wounded.

After the shootings, the residents were taken to Tiaka and sent to Rata village. The five villagers hurt by gunshots were rushed to Luwuk Hospital. Taslim was also nursed there and later moved to Bhayangkara Hospital. Nine days after being treated at the hospital, Taslim was then detained at the Central Sulawesi Police HQ. Along with 22 other residents, he became a suspect.

Medco Field Manager Sugeng Sutiyoso said the gunfire aimed at the boat was due to the demonstrators' holding the soldier, policemen and Medco staff hostage. "They ran out of fuel so the protesters asked the hostages to be bartered for fuel," added Sugeng. According to him, the police must have fired shots to paralyze the demonstrators holding the men hostage.

Two days after the bloody incident, the National Human Rights Commission visited the scene. An investigating team comprising the commission's four representatives in Palu was led by Dedi Askari. Commission member Ridha Saleh also flew there.

Provisional findings, said Ridha, were different from the information given by the Medco official. "Shootings of residents occurred," he pointed out. "The action belongs to the category of rights violation."

Ridha regretted the police action. "The attitude of the police indicated partiality for Medco," he said.

Central Sulawesi Police Chief, Brig. Gen. Dewa Parsana, denied his personnel's leaning. In his view, the police already took persuasive moves and appealed that mass anarchy should be avoided. "There were also warning shots," he noted. "But the masses kept raging, hurling Molotov cocktails at the rig and guards."

However, Dewa said the police are still probing any alleged procedural deviations. At present Morowali Police Chief, Adj. Sr. Comr. Suhirman, and 19 Mobile Brigade members have been named to be examined.

The clashes stemmed from the absence of agreement between residents and JOB Pertamina-Medco E & P for the well-being in three districts. Then added another from the land acquisition process is not fair according to their divisions. The price of land per square meter only in nominal right around Rp. 9000 to Rp. 12,500. But the pretext of capital owners to pay Rp. 150,000 per square meter. It is estimated that the land area of 20,000 square meters in 2011 but until now, the land is only about 1,000 acres of land granted to the citizens. Environmental damage from oil processing Pertamina is also an indicator, some of the natural wealth of the ocean under the damaged and destroyed by oil wastes that pollute the area. With some problems starting from the absence of welfare among the citizens, land seizure, destruction, and the other part, people do eventually forms of opposition to the mass action.

Legal Structure :

The Police Department seek the provocateurs behind the demonstration. And then invited the Commission form a fact-finding team (TPF) to investigate alleged human rights violations in the case of The Bloody Waters of Tiaka, the island where oil drilling JOB Pertamina-Medco E & P Tomori, Morowali District, Central Sulawesi, which left two civilians were shot dead by police. The last, The Police Department do an evaluation of its members are suspected of committing offenses in the shooting. Even the Central Sulawesi Police Propam has come down to the field to investigate.

Legal Substance :
20 villagers was arrested & made suspect by police in Central Sulawesi, 4 (four) of them are children under the age. Police action is arbitrarily set to 4 people suspect under the age has given rise to stigmatization of evil and cause severe psychological trauma course. Against such children, police are required to provide special treatment and ensure the fulfillment of their rights as children in accordance with Law No. 23 of 2002 on Child Protection.

Almost all the suspects snared the Articles of violence (destruction) of objects (Article 170 of the Criminal Code jo. Article 55-56 of the Criminal Code) that the penalties are a maximum of 7 years in prison. In addition there is a man named Mohammed Sondeng Andri considered provocation, incitement and confiscated firearms. Andri was regarded as an intellectual actor in the action which took place on Monday, August 22, 2011.

Legal Culture :
1. Practices used by the owners of this capital has been clearly shown that deprivation, discrimination, exploitation which they use constantly oppress all of any existing community sector. The unit functions as a protector of security forces is the community, now a "pet dog" capitalism where when people want to convey the aspirations of the people there he was arrested, beaten, on interrogation, and even killed as the shooting of this kind. Interests of capital owners are ultimately only be devastating to the people of Indonesia and beneficial owners of capital and his minions. Then it has become imperative for students and people oppressed to continue to take the fight against the interests of the financiers and political elites who continue to inflame the promises of their imitation.

2. According to People's Advocacy Team Unity Morowali :

The Bloody waters of Tiaka happened due to PT. Medco broken the promises since 2007. PT. Medco itself has done the extraction of oil since 2005, but the fact is not at all benefit the surrounding community or even welfare. They just have injustice and criminalization when demanding their rights. All parties should re-look at the chronological version is not affected citizens and lie to the chronological order that had been submitted the police. It is important to prevent the justification for the police doing the shooting and other violence against citizens. This incident once again adds to the poor record and shows how the police have lost their professionalism because the demands of citizens responded with repressive and inhumane acts.

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Islamic Family Law for reading

 

PEMBARUAN HUKUM KELUARGA DI DUNIA MUSLIM :

Sejarah, Gerakan dan Perbandingan

Oleh : Yusdani

 

Abstract

The modern legislation in the field of law, especially in the family law at beginning of twentieth century entered and influenced on the Moslem family law. The characteristics of modern legislation was unification, codification, written law and the certainty of law . Toward the demand and the challenge of modern legislation, Moslem Countries have applied the books of fiqh that produced in the classical and the medieval period emerged ambivalent attitude. On one hand a group of Moslem scholar of fiqh thought that they must be guided by the books of fiqh school. On the other, they thought, they needed to harmonize the materials of law in the books of fiqh school with demanding modern legislation, for instance that conducted by Egypt, Pakistan, and Indonesia.  So in the context of how to place the position of the result of thinking in family law in modern of Moslem world proportionally, it is urgent to research why and what background of the family law reform in Egypt, Pakistan, and Indonesia by using historical and comparative approach. The result of this research revealed that (1)the reason for Egypt, Pakistan and Indonesia to reform the family law is to fulfill the demand and the challenge of modern legislation,(2) the method of family law  reform in three countries above combines the principle of the public interest and the method of siyasah, tatbiq, takhayyur and tajdid, (3) the materials of family law in three countries, either in the Marriage act, in heritance law, in testament law or the others remove from the books of fiqh, and in many cases of the materials differ from the books of fiqh fundamentally.         

Key words : Modern Legislation, Moslem Family Law, Reform

 

LATAR BELAKANG MASALAH

            Pada zaman modern, khususnya abad ke-20, bentuk-bentuk literatur hukum Islam telah bertambah dua macam, selain fatwa, keputusan pengadilan agama, dan kitab fiqh. Adapun yang pertama ialah Undang-Undang yang berlaku di negara –negara muslim khususnya mengenai hukum keluarga. Sedangkan yang kedua adalah Kompilasi Hukum Islam yang sebenarnya merupakan inovasi Indonesia. kompilasi bukan kodifikasi, tetapi juga bukan kitab fiqh (Mudzhar, 1999:113).

Sikap para ulama terhadap diundangkannya materi-materi hukum keluarga di negara-negara muslim telah menimbulkan pandangan pro dan kontra, bahkan perdebatan sengit antara ulama-ulama yang tetap ingin mempertahankan ketentuan-ketentuan hukum yang lama dengan kalangan pembaru baik dalam persoalan-persoalan, baik yang menyangkut metodologi maupun substansi hukumnya (Donohue dan Esposito,1995: 365-366). Sebagai contoh misalnya, dengan diberlakukannya Undang-Undang No. 1 tahun 1974 tentang Perkawinan dan Undang-Undang No.7 tahun 1989 tentang Peradilan Agama, umat Islam Indonesia telah memiliki peraturan perundang-undangan yang memadai untuk mengatur masalah-masalah keluarga, perkawinan, perceraian dan warisan. Sementara sebagian ulama tradisional Indonesia masih ada yang belum sepenuhnya memahami atau menyetujiui berbagai aturan dalam kedua undang-undang tersebut karena dianggap tidak selamanya sesuai dengan apa yang termuat dalam kitab-kitab fiqh.

 Akan tetapi sebagian ulama lain merasa bangga dengan lahirnya kedua undang-undang itu karena dianggap sebagai kemajuan besar dalam perkembangan pemikiran hukum Islam di Indonesia. Apalagi dengan disepakatinya hasil Kompilasi Hukum Islam oleh para ulama Indonesia pada tahun 1988 yang kemudian diikuti oleh Instruksi Presiden No. 1 tanggal 10 Juni 1991 untuk menyebarluaskan dan sedapat mungkin menerapkan isi kompilasi tersebut, hal ini telah menandai lembaran baru dalam perkembangan pemikiran Islam di Indonesia khususnya dalam bidang hukum keluarga (Mudzhar,1999 : 173).

Untuk meletakkan hasil pemikiran hukum Islam dalam bidang hukum keluarga di dunia muslim secara benar dalam perspektif perkembangan pemikiran hukum Islam,  penelitian terhadap materi-materi atau naskah-naskah kitab undang-undang hukum keluarga yang berlaku di negara-negara muslim menjadi penting. Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini diberi judul Pembaruan Hukum Keluarga di Dunia Muslim : Sejarah, Gerakan dan Perbandingan.

PERMASALAHAN    

Berpangkal tolak dari dasar-dasar  pemikiran di atas, yang menjadi pokok permasalahan dalam penelitian ini adalah :

1. Mengapa  kaum muslim pada era moderen di satu pihak melakukan pembaruan hukum keluarga sedangkan di sisi lain kaummuslim masih terikat dengan fiqh mazhab ?

2.Bagaimana  negara-negara muslim di atas melakukan mereformasi hukum keluarga mereka ?

3.Materi-materi  apa  dalam undang-undang hukum keluarga  yang berlaku di negara-negara muslim berbeda secara fundamental dengan kitab-kitab fiqh ?

STUDI PUSTAKA

Negara-negara muslim di dunia ini dalam hubungannya dengan reformasi hukum keluarga dapat dikategorikan menjadi (1) Negara muslim yang sama sekali tidak mau melakukan pembaruan dan masih tetap memberlakukan hukum keluarga sebagaimana yang tertuang dalam kitab-kitab fiqh dari mazhab yang dianut. Saudi Arabia merupakan contoh dari negara muslim yang termasuk kategori ini, (2) Negara muslim yang sama sekali telah meninggalkan hukum keluarga Islam (fiqh) dan sebagai gantinya mengambil hukum sipil Eropa. Turki adalah contoh negara yang termasuk kelompok ini, dan (3) Negara-negara muslim yang berusaha memberlakukan hukum keluarga Islam setelah mengadakan pembaruan. Di antara negara yang termasuk kelompok ini adalah Mesir, Tunisia, Pakistan dan Indonesia (Anderson, 1975:82-91).

Pembaruan dalam bidang hukum keluarga di dunia muslim ditandai tidak saja oleh penggantian hukum keluarga Islam (fiqh) dengan hukum-hukum Barat, tetapi juga oleh perubahan-perubahan dalam hukum Islam itu sendiri yang didasarkan atas reinterpretasi (penafsiran kembali) terhadap hukum Islam sesuai dengan perkembangan penalaran dan pengamalannya. Dengan cara inilah hukum keluarga di dunia muslim  mengalami perubahan. Tujuan utama pembaruan hukum keluarga tersebut adalah meningkatkan status atau kedudukan kaum wanita dan memperkuat hak-hak anggota keluarga (Donohue dan Esposito,1995:364-365).

Di samping itu, ada juga pembahasan persoalan gender dan dampaknya terhadap perkembangan hukum Islam” yang memfokuskan pada permasalahan bahwa pembaruan hukum keluarga di dunia muslim bertujuan untuk melindungi dan meningkatkan derajat kaum wanita (Mudzhar,1999:121).

Pembahasan pembaruan hukum keluarga di negara-negara muslim tersebut ada penelitian atas 22 negara muslim yang terdiri dari 13 negara Arab dan 9 negara non-Arab. Pembahasan di atas meliputi latar belakang sejarah pembaruan hukum keluarga di negara-negara muslim, teks-teks perundang-undangan masing-masing dari 22 negara, dan mempergunakan analisa perbandingan (Mahmood,1987).

Penelitian-penelitian di atas belum membahas secara rinci mengenai hal-hal yang melatarbelakangi munculnya pembaruan pemikiran hukum keluarga di dunia muslim, sifat dan metode ijtihad yang dipergunakan kaum muslim dalam mereformasi hukum keluarga dan bagaimana meletakkan hasil pemikiran hukum Islam dalam bidang hukum keluarga di dunia muslim secara benar dan bertanggungjawab dalam perspektif perkembangan pemikiran hukum Islam.     

KERANGKA TEORI

Dalam perspektif historis, pembaruan hukum Islam menampakkan diri dalam bentuk (1) kodifikasi (pengelompokkan hukum yang sejenis ke dalam kitab undang-undang) hukum Islam menjadi hukum perundang-undangan negara, yang dinamakan sebagai doktrin siyasah,(2) tidak terikatnya umat Islam hanya pada satu mazhab hukum tertentu, yaitu disebut doktrin takhayyur(seleksi) pendapat yang paling dominan dalam masyarakat, (3) penerapan hukum terhadap peristiwa baru, yang disebut doktrin tatbiq, dan (4) perubahan hukum dari yang lama kepada yang baru yang dinamakan tajdid-reinterpretasi(Coulson,1994:149-185).

METODE

Penelitian ini bersifat penelitian pustaka (library research) yang sumber utamanya adalah buku Personal Law in Islamic Countries : History, Texts and Comparative Analysis karya Tahir Mahmood yang diterbitkan di New Delhi oleh penerbit Academy of Law and Religion 1987. Di samping sumber tersebut juga didukung buku-buku dan jurnal yang secara langsung berhubungan dengan pokok permasalahan penelitian.

Negara muslim yang peneliti teliti dalam penelitian ini adalah tiga negara, yaitu Mesir mewakili negara muslim Timur Tengah yang termasuk negara muslim yang memperbarui hukum keluarga periode awal, Pakistan mewakili negara muslim Asia Selatan yang melakukan pembaruan hukum keluarga periode kedua dan Indonesia mewakili kawasan Asia Tenggara yang memperbarui hukum keluarga termasuk periode akhir.

Pendekatan yang dipergunakan dalam penelitian ini mengkombinasikan pendekatan normatif dan pendekatan historis. Pendekatan normatif  adalah melihat aturan-aturan yang terkandung dalam hukum keluarga Mesir, Pakistan dan Indonesia. Sedangkan yang dimaksud dengan pendekatan historis yaitu melihat bagaimana latar belakang sejarah timbulnya pembaruan hukum keluarga di Mesir, Pakistan dan Indonesia dahulu, bagaimana perkembangannya masa kini dan bagaimana pula prospeknya pada masa mendatang, dengan kata lain pendekatan yang peneliti pergunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah pendekatan sejarah sosial (Mudzhar,1998:105).

Metode analisis yang peneliti pergunakan dalam  penelitian ini adalah content analysis atau analisis isi (Muhajir,1993:49) terhadap materi-materi perundang-undangan hukum keluarga yang berlaku di Mesir, Pakistan dan Indonesia. Analisis isi tersebut dilakukan dengan langkah-langkah atau prosedur ekstraksi dan reduksi data  yang memperhatikan obyektivitas, sistematis dan generalisasi. Kemudian dilakukan interpretasi, abstraksi (Mahfud,1999:14) dan penjabaran (Sutiyoso,1999:133) terhadap isi atau kandungan yang terdapat dalam perundang-undangan hukum keluarga Mesir, Pakistan dan Indonesia.

 Di samping itu, peneliti juga menggunakan analisa perbandingan  antarmateri perundang-undangan hukum keluarga yang berlaku di negara-negara muslim dan antara perundang-undangan hukum keluarga yang sekarang berlaku di Mesir, Pakistan dan Indonesia dengan kitab-kitab fiqh, dan akhirnya peneliti membuat kesimpulan.    

HASIL PENELITIAN DAN PEMBAHASAN

1.Hukum Keluarga Mesir,  Pakistan dan Indonesia

            Undang-undang yang terbit di bidang hukum keluarga di Mesir adalah Ordonansi Susunan Pengadilan Agama tahun 1897, Undang-Undang No. 25 tahun 1929 tentang Beberapa Ketentuan Hukum Keluarga, Undang-Undang No. 78 tahun 1931 tentang Susunan Pengadilan Agama, Undang-Undang Kewarisan dan Wasiat dan Undang-Undang Wakaf yang terbit tahun 1943 dan 1946, dan Undang-Undang No. 44 tahun 1979 tentang Beberapa Ketentuan Hukum Keluarga. Sedangkan undang-undang terpenting mengenai keluarga di Pakistan adalah Child Marriage Restraint Act,1929, Dissolution of Muslim Marriages Act, 1939 dan Muslim Family Laws Ordinance,1961(Siraj,1993:104).

            Asal muasal pengadilan agama di Indonesia dapat ditelusuri dari penghulu atau kepala administrasi masjid daerah, yang mengurusi urusan keluarga serta warisan dari sejak abad ke-16. Pada saat itu. Pengadilan agama dilaksanakan di serambi masjid dan keputusannya didasarkan pada mazhab Syafi’i ( Cammack,1992 :30).

Pada tahun 1882 dikeluarkan dekrit yang menetapkan pengadilan dalam bentuknya yang sekarang. Dekrit ini menetapkan bahwa pengadilan agama harus didirikan di daerah yang telah mempunyai pengadilan pemerintah dan wilayah yuridiksi pengadilan agama harus pula bersinggungan dengan wilayah pengadilan pemerintah (Cammack,1992:30). Pada tahun 1946 pemerintah Indonesia menetapkan suatu keputusan agar umat Islam mencatatkan perkawinan dan perceraian mereka ( UU No,22/1946).

            Pada tahun 1974  pemerintah Indonesia bersama DPR menetapkan UU No. 1 tahun 1974 tentang perkawinan sebagai undang-undang perkawinan nasional Indonesia, yang kemudian disusul dengan terbitnya Peraturan Pemerintah No.9 tahun 1975 sebagai petunjuk pelaksanaan UU No.1 tahun 1974 tersebut ( Mahmood, 1987 : 207 dan 212). Kemudian pada tahun 1983 keluar Peraturan Pemerintah No. 10 tahun 1983 tentang peraturan Poligami bagi Pegawai Negeri Sipil Indonesia (Mudzhar,1999: 117).

            Perkembangan selanjutnya adalah pada tahun 1989 Pemerintah Indonesia bersama DPR mengesahkan UU No. 7 tahun 1989 tentang UU Peadilan Agama yang berisi berbagai peraturan beracara di pengadilan Agama. Kemudian disusul dengan terbitnya Kompilasi Hukum Islam (KHI). Kompilasi Hukum Islam tersebut didukung oleh Inpres No. 1 tahun 1991 sebagai peraturan untuk pemasyarakatannya.  Kompilasi di atas sebenarnya adalah inovasi Indonesia. Kompilasi bukan kodifikasi, tetap juga bukan kitab fiqh ( Mudzhar,1999 :113). 

2.Masalah batas umur untuk kawin.

            Pasal 7 ayat (1) Undang-undang perkawinan No. 1 tahun 1974 menyatakan bahwa perkawinan hanya diizinkan jika pria sudah mencapai umur 19 tahun dan pihak wanita sudah mencapai umur 16 tahun. Sedangkan  Hukum Keluarga di Mesir menjelaskan bahwa perkawinan hanya dapat diizinkan jika laki-laki berumur 18 tahun dan wanita berumur 16 tahun, demikian juga dalam Hukum Keluarga di Pakistan dinyatakan bahwa  perkawinan dapat dilakukan jika laki-laki sudah berumur 18 tahun dan wanita berumur 16 tahun (Mahmood, 1987 :270).     Batas umur kawin untuk Indonesia di atas, jika dibandingkan dengan batas umur kawin  baik di Mesir maupun Pakistan sebenarnya sama, kecuali untuk laki-laki  relatif tinggi.

3..Masalah pencatatan perkawinan.

            Pasal 2 ayat (2) UU Perkawinan No.1 tahun 1974 menyatakan bahwa tiap-tiap perkawinan dicatat menurut peraturan perundang-undangan yang berlaku. Usaha untuk menetapkan pencatatan perkawinan di Mesir dimulai dengan terbitnya Ordonansi Tahun 1880 yang berisi ketentuan-ketentuan yang berkaitan dengan pegawai-pegawai pencatat nikah dan dasar-dasar pemilihan dan pengangkatan mereka serta menyerahkan pelaksanaan pencatatan nikah itu kepada kemauan para pihak yang berakad dan pertimbangan kepentingan mereka. Ordonansi Tahun 1880 itu didikuti dengan lahirnya Ordonansi Tahun 1897 yang pasal 31-nya menyatakan bahwa gugatan perkara nikah atau pengakuan adanya hubungan perkawinan tidak akan didengar oleh pengadilan setelah meninggalnya salah satu pihak apabila tidak dibuktikan dengan suatu dokumen yang bebas dari dugaan pemalsuan. Sedangkan di Pakistan telah timbul pemikiran tentang kewajiban mencatatkan perkawinan dengan ditetapkannya suatu ketentuan yang termuat dalam pasal 5 Ordonansi Hukum Keluarga Islam Tahun 1961 (Muslim Family Laws Ordinance,1961). Dalam pasal ini ditegaskan bahwa yang berwenang mengangkat pejabat-pejabat pencatat nikah dan mengizinkan mereka untuk melakukan pencatatan akad nikah adalah Majelis Keluarga(Union Council) dan bahwa majelis ini memberi izin untuk melakukan pekerjaan tersebut hanya kepada satu orang pada setiap daerah tertentu. Sesuai dengan pasal tersebut, perkawinan yang tidak dicatat tidaklah dianggap batal. Hanya saja para pihak berakad dan saksi yang melanggar ketentuan ordonansi itu dapat dihukum karena tidak mencatatkan nikah itu, dengan hukuman penjara selama-lamanya tiga bulan dan hukuman denda setinggi-tingginya seribu rupiah. Ketentuan hukuman ini sama sekali tidaklah bertentangan dengan dengan asas-asas pemikiran hukum pidana Islam, yang justru memberi hak kepada penguasa untuk memberikan hukuman ta’zir bila diperlukan guna mempertahankan kepentingan-kepentingan yang dikehendaki oleh syara’ (Siraj,1993:106).

            Dari tiga negara tersebut terdapat kesamaan pandangan tentang perlunya akad nikah diaktakan. Pentingnya diaktakan akad perkawinan di atas karena menyangkut persoalan asal-usul anak, kewarisan dan nafkah. Akan tetapi tiga negara di atas belum sampai kepada sikap dan pandangan bahwa pencatatan nikah termasuk rukun baru dari akad nikah. Hal ini dapat dilihat dari masih dianggap sah suatu pernikahan yang tidak dicatat.         

4. Masalah cerai di depan pengadilan

            Pasal 39 ayat (1) UU Perkawinan No. 1 tahun 1974 menyatakan bahwa perceraian hanya dapat dilakukan di depan sidang pengadilan setelah pengadilan yang bersangkutan berusaha dan tidak berhasil mendamaikan kedua belah pihak. Aturan ini berbeda dengan kitab-kitab fiqh klasik yang menyatakan bahwa talak dapat terjadi dengan pernyataan sepihak  dari suami, baik secara lisan maupun  tertulis, secara bersungguh-sungguh atau bersenda gurau (Mudzhar,1999:116).

Di Pakistan, menurut UU tahun 1961 dinyatakan bahwa seorang suami masih dapat menjatuhkan talak secara sepihak di luar pengadilan, tetapi segera setelah itu ia diwajibkan melaporkannya kepada pejabat pencatat perceraian yang kemudian akan membentuk Dewan Hakam (Arbitrasi) untuk menengahi dan mendamaikan kembali pasangan suami isteri itu. Jika setelah 90 hari usaha perdamaian itu gagal, talak itu berlaku. 

Di Mesir sampai terbitnya Undang-Undang Tahun 1979 tentang beberapa ketentuan hukum keluarga  menghendaki dibatasinya hak talak suami dengan cara mewajibkannya mencatatkan talak pada waktu dijatuhkan dan memberitahukan kepada isterinya. Jika tidak, ia dapat dikenai hukuman kurungan selama-lamanya enam bulan dan denda sebanyak-banyaknya dua ratus pound, dan talak hanya menimbulkan akibat hukum sejak dari tanggal diketahuinya oleh isteri. Undang-undang itu juga menetapkan untuk janda yang ditalak setelah dicampuri suatu pemberianmutah yang besarnya sama dengan nafkah selama dua tahun (Mahmood,1987: 31-32).      

5. Poligami

            Pasal 3 ayat (1) dan (2) UU Perkawinan No. 1 tahun 1974 menyatakan bahwa pada dasarnya dalam suatu perkawinan seorang pria hanya boleh mempunyai seorang isteri. Juga seorang wanita hanya bolaeh mempunyai seorang suami. Pengadilan dapat memberi izin kepada seorang suami untuk beristeri lebih dari seorang apabila dikehendaki oleh pihak-pihak yang bersangkutan. Kemudian dalam PP No.9 tahun 1975 pasal 40 dinyatakan bahwa apabila seorang suami bermaksud untuk beristeri lebih dari satu, ia wajib mengajukan permohonan secara tertulis kepada pengadilan. Ketentuan-ketentuan tersebut pada dasarnya mempersulit terjadinya poligami, bahkan bagi pegawai negeri berdasarkan PP No. 10 tahun 1983 poligami praktis dilarang.   

            Di Mesir menurut pasal 6 Undang-Undang tahun 1979 dan Ordonansi tahun 1929 (Mahmood,1987 :273-274)poligami dianggap sebagai menyakiti isteri sehingga memberinya hak untuk meminta pemutusan perkawinan selama ia tidak setuju atau belum lewat waktu satu tahun sejak ia mengetahui kejadian pernikahan suaminya dengan wanita lain. Hal ini berbeda dengan keadaan sebelumnya hak minta pemutusan perkawinan itu diberikan kepada isteri apabila dengan poligami itu terbukti adanya kesakitan yang dialami isteri (Siraj,1993 : 108-109).     

            Hukum Pakistan mengikuti garis perkembangan yang sama dalam masalah poligami. Dalam Undang-Undang Pemutusan Perkawinan Islam Tahun 1939 dinyatakan bahwa wanita berhak minta pemutusan perkawinan apabila terbukti ia mendapat kesakitan karena poligami. Kemudian diterima pandangan yang membatasi poligami, akan tetapi dilakukan dengan cara yang berbeda dengan cara yang diambil oleh hukum Mesir. Ordonansi Pakistan Tahun 1961 menyatakan wajibnya seorang yang ingin melakukan poligami memperoleh persetujuan majelis keluarga yang akan mengangkat suatu badan arbitrasi yang mencakup wakil isteri , dan badan arbitrasi ini tidak akan mengeluarkan persetujuan sang suami mengambil satu isteri lagi sebelum ia yakin betul terhadap keadilan dan perlunya suami kawin lagi. Pasal 6 Ordonansi Pakistan Tahun 1961 itu menetapkan bahwa suami yang melakukan perkawinan kedua dengan wanita lain tanpa memperoleh persetujuan tersebut, dapat dikenakan hukuman penjara selam-lamanya satu tahun dan denda sebanyak-banyaknya lima ribu rupiah, dan isteri terdahulu memperoleh hak atas talak (Mahmood,1987:245-246).  

            Dari sudut pandangan fuqaha modern, dengan menetapkan hukuman seperti itu atas semata-mata poligami, ordonansi tersebut telah sampai pada batas pelanggaran terhadap filsafat fiqh yang menegaskan bahwa tidak ada hukuman dalam melakukan perbuatan yang dibenarkan syara’(Siraj,1993:109).

6.Bagian warisan anak laki-laki dan perempuan

            Pasal 176 Kompilasi Hukum Islam Indonesia menyatakan bahwa jika anak perempuan menjadi ahli waris bersama-sama anak laki-laki, bagian anak laki-laki adalah dua berbanding satu dengan anak perempuan. Kemudian pasal 183 Kompilasi Hukum Islam tersebut menyatakan bahwa para ahli waris dapat bersepakat melakukan perdamaian dalam pembagian harta warisan setelah masing-masing menyadari bagiannya.

Ide pokok dari kedua diktum  di atas adalah bahwa sesuai dengan ajaran Alquran, bagian anak laki-laki adalah dua kali lipat bagian anak perempuan, tetapi untuk memberikan bagian yang sama kepada ahli waris laki-laki dan perempuan asalkan para ahli waris itu sendiri sepakat demikian. Demikianlah cara ulama Indonesia melakukan kompromi dengan budaya lokal ( Mudzhar,1999:119). Di Mesir dan Pakistan tidak ada yang mempersoalkan masalah besarnya bahagian laki-laki dan wanita, dua berbanding satu ini  (Mudzhar,1998:184).       

7. Wasiat wajib                       

            Pada tahun 1946 lahir Undang-Undang Kewarisan Mesir yang berisi pemecahan fiqh terhadap masalah tidak diberikannya bagian warisan kepada cucu-cucu yang ayah atau ibu mereka telah meninggal lebih lebih dahulu dari kakek atau nenek mereka, dan tertutupnya cucu-cucu tersebut oleh orang-orang dari lapisan yang lebih di atas dari mereka. Pemecahan cemerlang yang diberikan oleh undang-undang ini tercermin dalam konsep wasiat wajib yang didasarkan pada pengandaian bahwa kakek atau nenek telah berwasiat untuk cucu-cucunya dengan sejumlah peninggalan yang besarnya sama dengan bagian yang sedianya akan diterima oleh ayah atau ibu mereka yang telah meninggal semasa hidupnya kakek atau nenek mereka ( Mahmood,1987 : 303 dan Siraj,1993:112-113). 

            Sedangkan di Pakistan, Ordonansi 1961 berpegang kepada prinsip penggantian tempat  secara penuh oleh para cucu terhadap orangtua mereka yang sudah meninggal sewaktu kakek/nenek masih hidup. Cucu-cucu tersebut mengambil bagian ayah mereka seandainya ia masih hidup pada waktu meninggalnya kakek/nenek. Oleh karena itu, seandainya seseorang wafat dan meniggalkan seorang anak lelaki dan seorang anak lelaki dari anak lelaki yang ayahnya telah meninggal lebih dahulu dari seorang, serta anak perempuan dari anak perempuan yang ibunya juga telah meninggal lebih dahulu dari seorang yang wafat tersebut, harta peninggalan dibagi lima bagian :anak lelaki simati mengambil dua bagian, cucu lelaki dari pancaran anak lelaki mengambil dua bagian juga dan cucu perempuan pancaran perempuan mengambil satu bagian yang sedianya akan diambil oleh ibunya seandainya ibunya masih hidup (Siraj,1993:114 dan Mahmood,1987:303). Ketentuan yang dipegangi oleh Ordonansi Pakistan ini, seperti dikatakan Coulson, sangat kontras dibandingkan dengan cara undang-undang Mesir menangani problem yang sama melalui wasiat wajib, suatu sistem yang jelas dapat ditemukan dasar-dasarnya dalam sumber-sumber fiqh tradisional ( Coulson,1994:203).  

Mengenai wasiat wajib terhadap  cucu yatim, pasal 185 Kompilasi Hukum Islam Indonesia menyatakan bahwa ahli waris yang meninggal lebih dahulu daripada si pewaris, kedudukannya dapat digantikan oleh anaknya. Pasal ini sesuai dengan ijtihad para ulama Mesir yang melalui Hukum Waris tahun 1946 menyatakan bahwa seorang anak yang lebih dahulu meninggal dunia dan meninggalkan anak pula, cucu itu mengantikan ayahnya dalam mewarisi kakeknya atau neneknya dengan cara memperoleh wasiat wajib tidak lebih  dari sepertiga harta. Dalam kitab-kitab fiqh klasik tentu saja ketentuan-ketentuan demikian itu tidak ada, karena warisan pada dasarnya hanya untuk ahli waris yang masih hidup. Langkah Mesir itu dipandang lebih mendekati keadilan (Mudzhar,1998:184)                                                                                                           

KESIMPULAN

Sebagai penutup dari pembahasan-pembahasan terdahulu, dapat  dikemukakan kesimpulan sebagai berikut :

1.Bahwa reformasi hukum keluarga yang dilakukan oleh Mesir, Pakistan dan Indonesia merupakan upaya menjawab tantangan modernitas dalam bidang hukum keluarga, karena pemahaman konvensional  yang mapan tentang berbagai ayat Alquran, hadis dan kitab-kitab fiqh tidak mampu menjawab tantangan dan problema hukum keluarga yang muncul pada era moderen.

2.Bahwa metode ijtihad yang dipergunakan oleh Mesir, Pakistan dan Indonesia dalam memperbarui hukum keluarga adalah mengkombinasikan berbagai metode ijtihad yang biasanya dipergunakan oleh ulama usul al-fiqh -maslahat- dengan mempertimbangkan tuntutan legislasi modern.

3.Bahwa materi-materi  hukum keluarga di Mesir, Pakistan dan Indonesia baik dalam bidang perkawinan, warisan, wasiat dan lain-lain telah bergeser dari kitab-kitab fiqh mazhab bahkan dalam hal-hal tertentu materi-materi hukum keluarga tersebut berbeda secara fundamental dari kitab-kitab fiqh.      

 

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The Introduction of Islamic Law

The Shari’ah

“Then We have put you (O Muhammad s.a.w) on a plain way of (Our) commandment. So follow you that (Islamic Monotheism and its laws), and follow not the desires of those who know not” (Al-Jathiah: 18)

Literally Shari’ah means the right path. Rules which are review by Allah to his survent human and genie. And this rule covered faith “akidah” (morality and akhlak, human actions).

-          Rules related to faith we call it “Al Ahkam Al-l’yiqadiyyah”. The rules which regulates relationship between God and human being.

Example : Believing in God, believing in angles. Believeing in Qada and Qadar.

-          Rules related to morality we call it “Al Ahkam Al-Akhlaqiyyah”. The rules which regulates relationship between human and himself.

Example : being honest

-          Rules related to action we call it “Practical Legal Rule” or “Al Ahkam Al-Amaliyyah”. The rules which regulates relationship between human and the others.

The Fiqh

“And make loose the knot (the defect) from my tongue, That they understand my speech” (Taha: 27. 28)

Literally Fiqh means understanding something. Technically is a knowledge about practical legal rules which can be deduced from detailed legal sources.

Fiqh devided into 7 (seven) :

-          Wajib (obligatory) is any option which is required by the law maker (Allah SWT) in compulsory manner.

Example : Fasting, Hajj

-          Mandub (recommendable) is any option which is required by legislator but not in compulsory manner.

Example : Shalat Dhuha

-          Mubah (permissable) is option of action between commission and ommission.

Example : Drink tea or drink water

-          Makruh (discouraged) is any ommission which is required by legislator in compulsory manner.

Example : Smoker

-          Haram (prohibited) is any ommission required by the legislator in a compulsory manner.

-          Sah (valid) means legal rule which is related to action which is legally commited.

-          Batil (invalid/ void) means legal rule which is related to action which is not commited according to Shari’ah.

The Differences between Shari’ah and Fiqh

1.      Shari’ah is broader than Fiqh. Because Shari’ah covers 3 (three) area of rules related to morality, faith, and action. But Fiqh only covers rule related to action.

2.      Shari’ah does not have human elemen.

3.      Shari’ah is the origin of Fiqh. Fiqh is the product of Shari’ah.

4.      The sources of Shari’ah are Al-Qur’an and sunnah. But the sources of Fiqh are Al-Qur’an, sunnah, and ijtihad.

 – Kinds of Ijtihad : Ijma

                               Qiyas

                               Masalih Mursalah (Public Interest)

                               Istihsan

                               ‘Urf (Custom)

                               Sadd Al-Dharai’

                               Opinions of The Companions

5.      Shari’ah does not change. But Fiqh can changeable.

6.      Shari’ah can not be transgressed. But Fiqh can be transgressed.

The Objectives of Shari’ah

1.      Daruriyyat (Essentials) are the matters on which the religion and worldly affairs of the people depend upon, their neglect will lead to total disruption and disorder and it could lead to evil ending.

- Protection of Al-Din. Al-Din is the most important values that must be protected by the Muslims.

“Recite, [O Muhammad], what has been revealed to you of the Book and establish prayer. Indeed, prayer prohibits immorality and wrongdoing, and the remembrance of Allah is greater. And Allah knows that which you do.” (Al-Ankabut: 45)

- Protection of Life. Life is essential and valuable to everyone.

“And do not kill the soul which Allah has forbidden, except by right. And whoever is killed unjustly - We have given his heir authority, but let him not exceed limits in [the matter of] taking life. Indeed, he has been supported [by the law].”
(Al-Isra: 33)

- Protection of Dignity includes the protection of individual rights to privacy and not exposing or accusing others of misbehaviors.

“And those who accuse chaste women and then do not produce four witnesses - lash them with eighty lashes and do not accept from them testimony ever after. And those are the defiantly disobedient”

(An-Nur: 4)

- Protection of Mind/ Intelect. Al-‘aql or the intellect is a great gift from Allah (s.w.t) to mankind. This is one of the human capacities that differentiates man from animals.

“The [unmarried] woman or [unmarried] man found guilty of sexual intercourse - lash each one of them with a hundred lashes, and do not be taken by pity for them in the religion of Allah , if you should believe in Allah and the Last Day. And let a group of the believers witness their punishment.”

(An-Nur: 2)

- Protection of Property. Acquiring property is one of the necessities of mankind. Everyone has his/ her own property and would like to have all the necessary protection and security for his/ her property.

“And do not consume one another's wealth unjustly or send it [in bribery] to the rulers in order that [they might aid] you [to] consume a portion of the wealth of the people in sin, while you know [it is unlawful].”

(Al-Baqarah: 188)

2.      Hajiyat (Complimentaries)

If this objective are not require, this life will become difficult.

Sources of Islamic Law

1.      Al-Qur’an

2.      Sunnah

3.      Ijtihad

(i)                 Ijma

(ii)               Qiyas

(iii)             Istihsan

(iv)             Masalih Mursalah/ Istislah

(v)               Istihsab

(vi)             Sadd Al-Dhara’i

(vii)           Custom

(viii)         Opinions of The Companions

(ix)             Shara’i Man Qablana

The Case of Muadz bin Jabal

When the prophet sents him to Yaman as a governer (a judge).

-          If a case broke to you, how would you judge? Muadz answer, “I will refer to Al-Qur’an”

-          If you can not find anything form the Al-Qur’an, how would you judge? Muadz answer, “I will refer to the Sunnah of the Prophets”

-          If you can not find anything in the Al-Qur’an and the Sunnah, how would you judge? Muadz answer, “I will exercise Ijtihad and I will do it seriously”

The Prophet pet his chest.

Primary Sources of Shari’ah

Al-Qur’an is the words of Allah revealed to prophet Muhammad trough Angel Gibrael in Arabic language transmitted continously written in a book starting from Al-Fatihah, ending with Surah Annas, recited in ibadah.

It’s first chapter was revealed in the cave of Hira in Makkah when the following verses were revealed,

“Recite in the name of your Lord who created”

“Created man from a clinging substance.”

“Recite, and your Lord is the most Generous”

“Who taught by the pen”

“Taught man that which he knew not.”

(Al- Alaq: 1-5)

The Second Source of Islamic Law

Sunnah

The Sunnah literally means a clear path or a beaten track. In pre-Islamic Arabia. The Arabs used the word ‘Sunnah’ in reference to the ancient and continuous practice of the community, which they inherited from their ancestors. The Sunnah as the second source of Islamic Law can be considered as a type of revelation from Allah to His Prophet (s.a.w).

“Nor does he speak from [his own] inclination”

“It is not but a revelation revealed”

(Al- Najm: 3-4)

The Function of Sunnah as The Second Source :

1.      To support the rules in the Al-Qur’an

Characteristics of Islamic Law :

1.      Divine Law

2.      Imposing two punishment

3.      Comprehensive

4.      Universal

5.      Everlasting (aplicable forever)

6.      Sources Al-Qur’an and Sunnah

Islamic Law Contains Universal Principles :

1.      The Principal of shura (mutual consultation) in Islam. The Al-Qur’an has strongly propagated this principle as stated in the following verses:

“And those who have responded to their lord and established prayer and whose affair is [determined by] consultation among themselves, and from what We have provided them, they spend.”

(Al-Shura: 38)

2.      Principles of Equality (al-musawa) in Islam. This principle does not discriminate anyone particularly in the implementation of Islamic Law. All are equal in the eye of law, whether they are the rulers of commoners. This principle is essential in order to uphold justice.

3.      Principles of Justice (al-adalah) in Islam. Islam propagates the upholding of justice in all circumstances and at all level. This is manifested in Al-Qur’an in the following verses:

“Indeed, Allah commands you to render trusts to whom they are due and when you judge between people to judge with justice. Excellent is that which Allah instructs you. Indeed, Allah is ever Hearing and Seeing.”

(An-Nisa: 58)

4.      The principle of “no harm shall be inflicted nor reciprocated” (la darar wa la dirar). This is a Hadith of the Prophet (s.a.w) which describes one of the most important principals to be held in the society. The principle indicates that all kinds of harms shall be avoided and removed whether it involves an individual or society.

The Legality of Ijtihad

1.      Refer to Surah An-Nisa 59

“O you who have believed, obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. And if you disagree over anything, refer it to Allah and the Messenger, if you should believe in Allah and the Last Day. That is the best [way] and best in result.”

The point is in the last sentence “obey the ijtihad”.

The ijtihad that you have to follow is from the head of state.

2.      The case of Muadz bin Jabal

When the prophet sents him to Yaman as a governer (a judge).

-          If a case broke to you, how would you judge? Muadz answer, “I will refer to Al-Qur’an”

-          If you can not find anything form the Al-Qur’an, how would you judge? Muadz answer, “I will refer to the Sunnah of the Prophets”

-          If you can not find anything in the Al-Qur’an and the Sunnah, how would you judge? Muadz answer, “I will exercise Ijtihad and I will do it seriously”

The Prophet pet his chest.

3.      Practice of The Prophet and Kulafa Rashidin.

Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.

In the battle of Hudaybiyyah, non muslim army when they were almost to be defeated, they offered cease fire the Prophet did not know what to do, so he asked companions discussion. After the discussion, he made decision to accept the cease fire.

When the Prophet died, a lot of Muslims left their religion (murtad). And also a lot of Muslims refuse to pay zakat. So Abu Bakar did not know wht to do, so he consulted with companions, he made decision to kill them.

When Muslim army went to open Iraq, the want the battle. And they obtain spoils of war in the form of land. Umar did not know what to do to the land, he consulted with companions. And he made decision to distribute the land to the local people.

How to be a Mujtahid

Muslim scholars require 4 (four) requirements in a person to be a Mujtahid :

1.      The person must know the content of Al-Qur’an

2.      The person must know Sunnah of the Prophet

3.      The person must know Arabic. Because the 2 (two) sources are written in Arabic.

4.      The person should know usul Al- Fiqh

Methods of Ijtihad

1.    Ijma is consensus of Muslim juris of ummah of Muhammad in a certain matter after the death of a Prophet in a legal issue.

This is one of the verses from the Al-Qur’an frequently quoted by the scholars as the basis of Ijma :

“And whoever opposes the Messenger after guidance has become clear to him and follows other than the way of the believers - We will give him what he has taken and drive him into Hell, and evil it is as a destination.”

(Al- Nisa: 115)

Example : a Muslim woman is not permitted to marry a non Muslim man

2.      Qiyas

Measuring a subject for which a provision or dalil are not available in the Al-Qur’an or Sunnah with the subject for which provision are available in the Al-Qur’an and Sunnah to find a legal rule based on similar ‘illah (effective cause).

One of the verse normally quoted is the verse in Surhat al- Nisa’:

“O you who have believed, obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority among you. And if you disagree over anything, refer it to Allah and the Messenger, if you should believe in Allah and the Last Day. That is the best [way] and best in result.” (Al- Nisa: 59)

There are 2 (two) types of indications in the Sunnah, which were normally quoted by scholars in support of Qiyas:

1.      Qiyas is a form of personal reasoning (ijtihad) which the Prophet s.a.w expressly validates in the famous Hadith of Muadz bin Jabal when he was sent to Yemen.

2.      There are several evidence in the Sunnah of the Prophet s.a.w which indicate that he resorted to qiyas on occasion when he did not receive a revelation on a particular matter.

The Pillars of Qiyas

There are several pillars (arkan) of qiyas considered as the essential requirements in exercising qiyas. These pillars are:

1.      The original case, or ‘asl, a case about which a ruling is given in the text and analogy seeks to extend it to a new case.

2.      The new case, or furu’ on which a ruling is needed and it is the extension of the same ruling which is applied in the original case.

3.      The effective cause or illah, which is an attribute of the original case and is found to be in common between the original and the new case.

4.      The rule (hukm) governing the original case, which is to be extended to the new case.

            Examples of Qiyas

1.      The Qur’an forbids selling or buying of goods after the last call for Friday prayers until the end of the prayer. This can be observed in the following verses:

“O you who have believed, when [the adhan] is called for the prayer on the day of Jumu'ah [Friday], then proceed to the remembrance of Allah and leave trade. That is better for you, if you only knew.” (Al-Jumu`ah: 9)

By analogy, this prohibition is extended to all kinds of transactions and activities such as agriculture activities, administration and others. This is because the effective cause, that is diversion from Friday prayer, is common to all.

2.      The Prophet s.a.w is reported to have said in a Hadith, “The Killer shall not inheret (from his victim)”. By analogy, this ruling is extended to bequests (wasiyyah), which would implicate that the killer can not benefit from the will of his victim either as both issues share the same cause effective which is killing in order to rush in obtaining one’s right.

3.      Istihsan (Juristic Preference)

Hasan means good. Istihsan means looking for good or looking for better. The deviation from established legal rule when there is a spesific authority or dalil or reason justifying that the deviated legal rule is better than the established rule.

Classification of Istihsan

Scholars have divided istihsan into several types according to its origin. The Hanafi scholars divided istihsan into two main categories:

1.      The departure from the clear analogical reasoning (qiyas jali) to the hidden analogy (qiyas khafi) because the latter is stronger and more effective in repelling hardship and also is it arrived at through deeper reflection and analysis. This type of istihsan is also called istihsan qiyas. An example for this type of istihsan can be observed in the Hanafi view on waqf (charitable endowments)’

2.      The second variety of istihsan consists of making an exception to a general rule of the existing law. This type of istihsan is also called istihsan istihna’i.

4.      Maslahah Mursalah (Public Interest)

Maslahah literally means benefit or interest. When it is narrowed to maslahah mursalah, it indicates unregulated public interest in the sense of not having been regulated by the law giver as nor textual authority can be found on its validity or otherwise.

Classification of Maslahah Mursalah

The scholars have divided maslahah mursalah into three categories:

1.      Maslahah which the Qur’an or Sunnah has expressly upheld and has enacted a law for its realisation. This is called Al-maslahah Al-mu’tabarah, or accredited maslahah. This type of maslahah can not be rejected and must be upheld.

2.      The second type of maslahah is the invalidated maslahah, or maslahah mulgha which the Qur’an or Sunnah has nullified either clearly or by indication that could be found in Shari’ah.

3.      The third variety of maslahah is the masalih that has been validated after the divine revelation came to an end, namely the maslahah mursalah. For this type of maslahah, there is no text that validates it nor any text that invalidates it.

Conditions for the Validity of Maslahah

The jurists have also set certain conditions that must be met by the prescribed maslahah in order for it to be valid. The following conditions are designed to ensure that maslahah does not become an instrument of arbitrary desire or individual bias in legislation:

1.      The maslahah must be genuine (haqiqiyyah), as opposed to imaginary maslahah (maslahah wahmiyyah), which is not a proper ground for legislation.

2.      The maslahah must be general (kulliyyah) which means it prevents harm or secures benefit to the people as a whole and not to a particular person or group of persons.

3.      Finally, the maslahah must not be in conflict with a principle or value which is upheld by the Qur’an, Sunnah or Ijma (consensus of opinion of the scholars).

There are many general verses and practices of the Prophet (s.a.w) which can be quoted as the basis of maslahah. One of the verses is:

“And We have not sent you, [O Muhammad], except as a mercy to the worlds.” (Al- Anbiya: 107)

5.      Sadd al- Dhara’i (Blocking the Means to an Evil)

Sadd literally means blocking and the word dhara’i, which is the plural of dhari’ah (synonymous to wasilah) signifies the means of obtaining a certain end. Sadd al- Dhara’i thus indicates blocking the means to an expected end which is likely to materialise if such a means is not blocked.

Classification of Sadd al- Dhara’i

The scholars devided dhara’i into four categories, namely

1.      Means which definitely leads to evil, such as the building of structure at hill slope which is proven to be unsafe for the construction of any buildings.

2.      The second type of dhara’i is that which is most likely to lead to evil and is rarely, if ever, expected to lead to a benefit.

Example : The selling of weapons at the time of war or selling grapes to a wine maker.

3.      The third type of dhara’i is that which frequently leads to evil but there is no certainty, nor even a prevailing probability that this will always be the case.

Example : The sale which is used as a means to procure usury (riba’)

4.      The last type of dhara’i is that which is rarely expected to lead to evil and is most likely to lead to a benefit.

Example : The usage of many current equipment such as computers, the internet, television, video players, telecommunication equipment and other electronic objects.

The Basis of Sadd al-Dhara’i

The proponent of sadd al-dhara’i has quoted several verses from al-Qur’an, Sunnah and the action of the companions of the Prophet as the basis for the utilisation this source in deducing the rulings of fiqh.

The basis from al-Qur’an is:

“And do not insult those they invoke other than Allah , lest they insult Allah in enmity without knowledge. Thus We have made pleasing to every community their deeds. Then to their Lord is their return, and He will inform them about what they used to do.” (Al-An’am: 108)

6.      ‘Urf (Custom)

‘Urf is a noun of ayn, ra, fa, which literally means ‘to know’. As a conventional term, various defenitions of ‘urf have been given by the Muslim jurists. Khallaf defined ‘urf as, “What is established and practiced by people from their sayings and doings, or not doing”.

Classification of ‘Urf

Islamic jurists have developed a classification of the different types of ‘urf and have divided them into various types. The classifications are:

1.      The Verbal (Qawly) and Practical (Amali) ‘Urf.

The verbal ‘urf consists of the general agreement of the people on the usage and meaning of words for purposes other than their literal meanings. As a result of such agreement, the customary meaning tends to become dominant and the original or literal meaning is reduced to an exception.

2.      The General (‘Amm) and Particular (Khass) ‘Urf.

‘Urf, whether verbal or in practice is divided into two types; general (al-‘urf al- ‘amm) and particular (al-‘urf al-khass). The general ‘urf is the common custom which is prevalent everywhere among all people in a matter regardless of the passage of time.

3.      The Valid (Sahih) and Invalid (Fasid) ‘Urf

Finally, custom is once again divided into valid (al-‘urf al-sahih) and invalid custopm (al-‘urf al-fasid). The valid custom is the ‘urf that is practiced by the people, which does not contravene the Shari’ah and deny the interest of people and at the same time does not bring corruption.

            Conditions of Valid ‘Urf

Muslim scholars have laid down the conditions that must be fulfilled in a customary practice in order to consider it as valid ‘urf. Besides being reasonable and acceptable to the people with wise reason and sound behaviour, ‘urf in order to be authoritative, must fulfill the followong requirements:

1.      ‘Urf must represent common and recurrent phenomena. This means that the ‘urf must be practiced by the people commonly and frequently in their daily life.

2.      Custom, in order to be authoritative, must also be dominant in the sense that it is observed in all or most of the cases to which it can apply.

3.      The custom must be in existence at the time the transaction is concluded. This means in order for ‘urf to be considered as a basis for judicial decisions, the practice must be prevalent at the time the transaction is concluded and not an extinct customary practice.

4.      The custom must not contravene the clear stipulation of an agreement. A custom can only be applied if there is no contractual agreement made in a particular transaction.

5.      Finally, the custom must not be in conflict with the Qur’an or Sunnah (nass). The opposition of custom to the nass may be absolute or partial. In cases of absolute conflict, the custom will have no effect because texts override customs.

The Basis of ‘Urf

The majority of the scholars (jumhur) recognised ‘urf as a supportive source of the Shari’ah and they have quoted several proofs in order to support their view. This is one of the proofs:

The verse from Al-Qur’an usually quoted in support of ‘urf is:

“Take what is given freely, enjoin what is good, and turn away from the ignorant.” (Al-A’raf: 199)

7.      Istishab (Presumption of Continuity)

Istishab literally means companionship. Technically, istishab indicates that facts, or rules of law and reason, whose existence or non existence had been proven in the past are presumed to remain so for lack of evidence to establish any change.

Scholars divided istishab into four categories based on the nature of the conditions  that are presumed to be continuous. The four varieties of istishab:

1.      Istishab, which presumes the continuity of the general rules and principles of the law. This means if there are no rulings in the Shari’ah on a matter, it will be categorized within the principle of ibahah (permissibility) which is the general norm of Islamic law concerning a matter that is regarded beneficial and free of evil consequences.

2.      The presumption of original absence which means that a fact or rule of law which has not existed in the past is presumed to be non-existent until the contrary is proved.

3.      The presumption of original presence. This type of Istishab takes for granted the presence or existence of that which is indicated by the law or reason.

4.      Istishab al-wasf or continuity of attributes  such as the presumption that a missing person is still alive. The person will be presumed alive until there is credible evidence, which proves otherwise.

Development of Islamic Law

1.      The 1st period: The Period of the Prophet (609 – 632 C.E)

2.      The 2nd period: The Period of the Four Guided Caliph (Al-Khulafa’ Al-Rashidin) (632 – 661 C.E)

3.      The 3rb period: The Period of the Ummayyah (661 – 750 C.E)

4.      The 4th period: The Period of the Abbasiyyah (750 – 1258 C.E)

-          The Golden Period (750 – 950 C.E)

-          The Stagnation/ Consolidation Period (950 – 1258 C.E)

5.      The 5th period: The Period of Reformation/ Reinvention (1258 – 1924 C.E)

6.      The 6th period: The Modern Period (1924 – 2009)

The 1st period: The Period of the Prophet (609 – 632 C.E)

The Historical Background

Legislation during This Period

1.      Legislation in Makkah (609 – 622 C.E) covers:

(i)                 Tawhid and the existence of Allah

(ii)               Life after death

(iii)             Heaven and hell

(iv)             Stories of the previous people

(v)               Challenges to the Pagan Jahiliyyah

(vi)             Moral values

2.      Legislation in Madinah (622 – 632 C.E) covers:

(i)                 Legal injuctions (al-ahkam al-‘amaliyyah)

(ii)               People of the Books (ahl al-Kitab)

(iii)             Jihad and rulings related to war

(iv)             The hypocrites (al-munafiqun

(v)               Morality and ethics related to social life

The Methods of Qur’anic Legislation in This Period

1.      The Qur’anic verses were revealed to address the issues occured

2.      The Qur’anic verses were revealed to answer queries put forward by people to the Prophet.

3.      The Qur’anic verses were revealed due to the need of society without any issue or query

Characteristics of Legislation in This Period

1.      Graduation (tadarruj)

2.      Focusing on removal of hardship

3.      Abrogation (naskh)

Ijtihad during This Period

1.      Ijtihad of the Prophet

2.      Ijtihad of the Companions

The 2nd period: The Period of the Four Guided Caliph (Al-Khulafa’ Al-Rashidin) (632 – 661 C.E)

The Historical Background

The Problem Solving Procedures of the Four Guided Caliphs

Ijtihad of the Companions

(i)                 The suspension of the hadd punishment for theft

(ii)               Statement of divorce

(iii)             Waging war against those who refused to pay Zakah

Difference of View among the Companions

Main Reasons for the Difference of Opinion among the Companions:

(i)                 Difference in their knowledge about the existence of certain hadiths

(ii)               Difference in their acceptance of hadiths

(iii)             Difference in the interpretation and understanding of certain Qur’anic verses

(iv)             Difference in the method of ijtihad on issues not mentioned in the text

Characteristics of Fiqh during This Period:

1.      Based on real issues

2.      Sticking to texts

3.      Changing of laws with the disappearance of reasons for the existence of the law and the changes of social condition

4.      Absence of madhhabs

The 3rb period: The Period of the Ummayyah (661 – 750 C.E)

Historical Background

Development of Fiqh during This Period:

(i)                 Increase in the issues related to fiqh and ijtihad

(ii)               Spreading of fabricated hadiths

(iii)             Emergence of the 1st two madhhabs of Islamic law – Ahl al-Hadith (School of Hadith) and Ahl al-Ra’y (School of Opinion)

Major Differences between the Methodology of Ahl al-Hadith and Ahl al-Ra’y:

(i)                 Ahl al-Hadith is more inclined to texts whereas Ahl al-Ra’y is more inclined to reasoning

(ii)               Ahl al-Hadith is restricted by texts whereas is inclined to hypothetical fiqh

Reasons for the Existence of Ahl al-Hadith in Madinah and Ahl al-Ra’y in Kufah:

(i)                 The availability of great numbers of hadith in Madinah and the scarcity of hadiths in Kufah

(ii)               The influence of the previous local scholars to the later scholars

(iii)             Simple life in Madinah and complex life in Kufah

The 4th period: The Period of the Abbasiyyah (750 – 1258 C.E)

The Golden Period (750 – 950 C.E)

The Historical Background

Factors Affecting the Development of Fiqh in This Period:

(i)                 Government’s support towards the development of Fiqh

(ii)               Emergence of mujtahidins and the spread of debate and discussion

(iii)             Expansion of the Islamic territories

(iv)             Compilation of Sunnah

(v)               Emergence of different madhhabs of Islamic Law

Among others:

a.       Hanafi

b.      Maliki

c.       Shafi’i

d.      Hanbali

e.       Zaidi

f.       Ja’fari

g.      Auza’i

h.      Zahiri

Factors Leading to the Emergence of Different Madhhabs:

(i)                 Difference in evaluating hadiths

(ii)               Difference in understanding certain texts

(iii)             Difference in life environment

(iv)             Difference in method of ijtihad

(v)               Difference in personality of scholars

(vi)             Difference in narrators of hadiths

The Sources of Islamic Law during This Period:

(i)                 Al-Qur’an

(ii)               Al- Sunnah

(iii)             Ijma’

(iv)             Qiyas

(v)               Istihsan (Juristic Preference)

(vi)             Masalih Mursalah (Public Interest)

(vii)           Istishab (Presumption of Continuity)

(viii)         Sadd al- Dhara’i

(ix)             ‘Urf

(x)               ‘Amal Ahl-al-Madinah (Practices of the People of Madinah)

The Stagnation/ Consolidation Period (950 – 1258 C.E)

The Historical Background

Taqlid and the Reasons of Its Emergence:

1.      The breaking up of the Abbasid state into small states

2.      The formation of the different madhhabs of Islamic Law

3.      The practice of ijtihad by unqualified individuals

4.      Utilization of single madhhab by judge

Contribution of Scholars during This Period:

1.      Scholars of each madhhab analyzed all the rulings of their madhhab founding scholars and codified them

2.      Scholars of madhhab made effort to distinguish the strong view from the others who had different vies on spesific issues

3.      Scholars developed a format of writing of fiqh

The 5th period: The Period of Reformation/ Reinvention (1258 – 1924 C.E)

Historical Background

The Main Features of This Period

1.      The emergence of reformers

(i)                 Ibn Taymiyyah (1263 – 1328 C.E)

(ii)               Shah Waliullah (1703 – 1761 C.E)

(iii)             Al-Shawkani (1757 – 1835 C.E)

(iv)             Jamaluddin al-Afghani (1839 – 1905 C.E)

(v)               Muhammad ‘Abduh (1849 – 1905 C.E)

2.      The call to revive ijtihad

3.      Codification of Islamic Law

Majallah al-Ahkam al-‘Adliyyah of the Uthmaniyyah (1869 – 1876 C.E)

4.      Collection of fatwas

(i)                 Fatawa Ibn Tawmiyyah

(ii)               Fatawa al- Bazzariyyah

(iii)             Fatawa al- Hindiyyah

5.      The colonization of the Islamic state by the Western powers

The 6th period: The Modern Period (1924 – 2009)

Historical Background

The Main Features of This Period:

1.      The fall of the Islamic state in Turkey

2.      The continuation of the colonization of the Islamic state by the Western Powers

3.      The replacement of Islamic law with the secular law by the Western Colonials except the Law of Personal Status with modification.

Chapter V

Islamic Law in Indonesia

Pre Independence Period

Classical Kingdoms

Islamic Law had been practiced among indigenous people in Nusantara. There were several Islamic Kingdoms such as the Kingdom of Demak, the Kingdom of Mataram, the Kingdom of Samudra Pasai, Banten Kingdom, etc.

Colonial Era

-          Recognition of the existence of Islamic Law

-          The establishment of the Theory ‘Receptio In Complexu’ in 1855, it says that “Islamic law may be practiced by anyone embracing the religion of Islam”.

-          The emergence of the Theory of Recpetie 1925, which says that Islamic lawcould be implemented under conditions:

a.       Had been accepted in traditional custom

b.      Did not contradict with Dutch Regulation

After Independence Period

Islamic law is applied to Muslims citizen through various decree/ regulations:

-          1974 : Marriage Regulation (UU Perkawinan)

-          1989 : Islamic Court

-          1991 : the Compilation of Islamic Law

-          1992 : Islamic Banking Systen

-          1994 : Halal Certification

-          1999 : Zakah Regulation

-          2002 : Wakaf Regulation

-          2008 : Islamic Banking

-          2008 : Islamic Bond

-          Post Reformation Era : Local and Specific Autonomy

Note : in 1975, Prof Hazairin built a theory in the implementation of Islamic Law, i.e., The Receptio a Contrario.

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